In the image: A petroglyph from Khakasia, Southern Siberia, depicting warrior-skiers.
“The Tenth Lake is Tuz-Kul, located in the region of the Hallukhs. Its length is ten farsangs, and its width is eight farsangs. Salt is produced in this lake, sufficient to meet the needs of the seven Hallukh tribes.
The Eleventh Lake is Issyk-Kul, situated between the Chigils and the Toguz-Guz. Its length is 30 farsangs, and its width is 20 farsangs. The city of Barskhan is located on the shore of this lake.
…Another mountain rises from the very beginning of the Toguz-Guz border near Lake Issyk-Kul. It stretches to the end of the Tukhsi region and the start of the Hallukh border, where it then turns. A spur of this mountain extends into the region of one of the Kyrgyz tribes. This mountain is called Tulas.
On this mountain, sable is found, along with many gray squirrels and musk gazelles. In the spur that extends toward the Kyrgyz region, there are musk deer, deer with Khutu antlers, gray squirrels, and sable.
Another mountain is located in the northern region, between the borders of the Kimaks and the beginning of Kyrgyz settlements. It extends from the Kimak border eastward to the Kyrgyz border, then turns and descends into the northern areas, reaching the places where the inhabited lands of the world end. In the northern regions, the Kimaks call this mountain Kandaurbagi.
Another river, called Ila, originates from the Irgadj-Art mountain, flows northward, and empties into Lake Issyk-Kul.
Another river, Uzgend, originates behind the Hallukh mountains and flows past Uzgend, the cities of Baba, Ahsikent, Khujand, and Benaket, reaching the borders of Chach. Then it continues past Syutkent, Parab, and many small towns, reaching the borders of Jand and Jawar, and finally empties into the Khwarazmian Sea.
Another river, Khursab, originates from the farthest limits of Butman, on the northern side of the mountain, and flows into the Uzgend River near the city of Khursab.
Another river, Osh, originates from the same mountain, flows between Osh and Urest, and empties into the Uzgend River.
Another river, Kuba, flows from the same mountain and empties into the Uzgend River near the settlement of Kuba.
Another river, Khatlam, originates from Mount Maisa, near the border between the Hallukhs and the Yagma. It flows to the border of Khatlam, then to Baba, and empties into the Uzgend River.
Another river, Parak, originates from the Hallukh mountain, flows southward, passes along the Chach border, and empties into the Uzgend River between Benaket and the Wall of Kelas. All these waters merge together and are called Chach, which the Arabs call Sayhun.
Another river, Ras, flows through the northern regions and the land of the Guz. This is a large river but is murky and foul-smelling. It originates from a mountain located on the border between the Kimaks and the Kyrgyz, crosses the Guz region, and empties into the Caspian Sea.
…There is also a desert located to the north of China. To its east lies the basin of the Eastern Ocean, to its south are the provinces of China, to its west is the Kucha River, and to its north are the Toguz-Guz and Kyrgyz.
The entire inhabited world consists of 51 regions, including Khifchak, Guz, Kimak, Chigil, Tukhsi, Hallukh, Yagma, Toguz-Guz, and Kyrgyz. Each of these regions is divided into provinces, and each province contains numerous towns and cities.
To the east of the Toguz-Guz lies the land of Chin. To the south, they border partly with the Kyrgyz, and to the north also with the Kyrgyz, who settle along all their borders.
To the north of the Toguz-Guz is a desert that stretches between the Toguz-Guz and the Kyrgyz, extending to the territory of the Kimaks.
Kashgar is part of the region of Chinistan but is located at the border between the Yagma, Tibet, Kyrgyz, and Chin. In ancient times, the leaders of Kashgar were either from the Hallukh or the Yagma.
To the east of Kashgar lies the land of Chin and the Eastern Ocean; to the south are the borders of the Toguz-Guz and partly the Hallukh; to the west are the territories of the Kimaks; and to the north are the uninhabited lands of the far north.
The surroundings of this region are entirely uninhabited. The uninhabited lands of the north are so cold that humans cannot survive there. This region is rich in musk, furs, white poplar, halaj wood, and Khutu horns, which are used to make knife handles.
Their ruler is called the Kyrgyz Khagan. These people resemble wild animals in character: their faces are coarse, their hair is sparse, and they are unjust and merciless. They are known for their warlike nature and frequent feuds, constantly fighting and quarreling with neighboring peoples.
Their wealth consists of Kyrgyz carts, sheep, cows, and horses. They migrate in search of water, dry grass, favorable weather, and green pastures. They worship fire and cremate their dead. They live in yurts and tents, supporting themselves through hunting and trapping.
The Furi are a tribe among the Kyrgyz. They settle east of the main Kyrgyz groups and do not intermingle with them. They are cannibals and ruthless; their language is incomprehensible to other Kyrgyz. They are likened to wild animals. Near their territory lies a city called Ksmidzhket, where the Kyrgyz Khagan resides.
The Kesim are another Kyrgyz tribe. They live on mountain slopes in tents and deal in furs, musk, Khutu horns, and other goods. This Kyrgyz tribe speaks a language closer to that of the Hallukh and dresses in a manner similar to the Kimaks.
None of these Kyrgyz tribes have permanent villages or cities, except for the location where the Khagan resides. All others live in tents.
A Word on the Region of the Hallukhs and Its Cities:
Penchul is located within the settlement area of the Hallukhs. In ancient times, its ruler was from the Toguz-Guz, but now it is under the control of the Kyrgyz.
This region, whose inhabitants trace their origins to the Hallukhs, is densely populated. To the east and south of it lie the borders of the Hallukhs; to the west are the borders of the Tukhsi; and to the north is the territory of the Kyrgyz.
Everything produced in the regions of the Hallukhs and Kyrgyz is also accessible to the Chigils. The Hallukhs have many sources of income, though their cities and villages are few. Most live in tents and yurts. Their primary sources of wealth are cattle, sheep, and horses. Some of them worship the sun and the stars. They are kind, sociable, and agreeable people. Their ruler is chosen from among their own.
A Word on the Region of the Tukhsi and Its Cities:
To the east of this region lie the borders of the Chigils; to the south are the Hallukhs and forested mountains; to the west is a group of Kyrgyz; and to the north are the Chigils. This region is even wealthier than that of the Chigils, as musk and various furs are abundant here.
The people of this region derive their wealth mainly from horses, sheep, furs, tents, and yurts. They migrate throughout the year, both in winter and summer, in search of pastures, grazing lands, and green meadows.
A Word on the Region of the Kimaks and Its Cities:
Karkar Khan is another region belonging to the Kimaks, whose inhabitants share many customs with the Kyrgyz.” - Anonymous
This anonymous work was written in 982 CE in Persian and was discovered in 1892 in Bukhara by A.G. Tumansky. The orientalist V.F. Minorsky later translated it into English with extensive scholarly commentary.
The work, Hudud al-’Alam (The Regions of the World), contains valuable information about the Kyrgyz and the geography of Kyrgyzstan. V.V. Bartold used this text as the basis for his pioneering research on the migration of part of the Yenisei Kyrgyz to the Tian Shan in the 9th century.
🧬 DNA Science Data:
“Haplogroup R1a1, more specifically, its subclade R1a1a1b2 (defined by mutation Z93), is the genetic marker of the Indo-European pastoralists, who migrated from modern-day Ukraine to modern-day Iran, India, the Kazakh steppes, the Tarim Basin, the Altai Mountains region, the Yenisei River region, and western Mongolia during the Bronze Age.
Naturally, R1a1, more specifically, its subclade R1a1a1b2 (R1a-Z93), occurs at high frequency among the Turkic peoples now residing in the Yenisei River and the Altai Mountains regions in Russia.
Compared to the Tuvinians, the Khakass (whose name was created by the Soviets from Xiajiasi (黠戛斯), a Chinese name for Kyrgyz, since they were regarded as descending from the Kyrgyz have noticeably higher percentages of R1a1 (35.2%) and much lower percentages of haplogroups C (1.1%) and Q (4%). However, N is also the most prevalent haplogroup (50%) of the Khakass (Gubina et al. 2013: 339; Shi et al. 2013)
As for the Altaians, the Altai-Kizhi (southern Altaians) are characterised by a high percentage of R1a1 (50%) and low to moderate percentages of C2 (20%), Q (16.7%) and N (4.2%) (Dulik et al. 2012: 234).
The major differences between the Khakass and the southern Altaians are the lower frequency of haplogroup N (in another study, haplogroup N is found at high frequency (32%) among the Altaians in general: see Gubina et al. 2013: 329, 339) and the higher frequencies of haplogroups C2 and Q among the latter.
The descent of the Kyrgyz (Kyrgyz) of the Tien Shan Mountains region (Kyrgyzstan) from the Yenisei Kyrgyz is debated among historians.
However, among the modern Turkic peoples, the former have the highest percentage of R1a1 (over 60%). Since the West Eurasian physiognomy of the Yenisei Kyrgyz recorded in the Xin Tangshu was in all likelihood a reflection of their Eurasian Indo-European marker R1a1a1b2 (R1a-Z93), one may conjecture that the Tien Shan Kyrgyz received their R1a1 marker from the Yenisei Kyrgyz. That is, the former are descended from the latter.
The other Y-chromosome haplogroups found among the Kyrgyz (Kyrgyz) are C2 (12~20%), O (0~15%) and N (0~4.5%).50 The lack of haplogroup Q among the Qirghiz (Kyrgyz) mostly distinguishes them from the Altaians.
During the Bronze Age and early Iron Age, the Yenisei River region was inhabited by Indo-Europeans. The dna study of 26 ancient human specimens from the Krasnoyarsk area dated from the middle of the second millennium bc to the fourth century ad shows that the Yenisei pastoralists mostly belonged to haplogroup R1a1 (Keyser et al. 2009: 401)
The high frequency of R1a1 among the modern-day Kyrgyz and Altaians may thus prove that they are descended from the Yenisei Kyrgyz. In addition, this may explain the reason why medieval Chinese histories depict the Kyrgyz as possessing West Eurasian physiognomy.
The Y-chromosomes of the Kök Türks have not been studied. After the collapse of the Second Türk Khaganate in 745 ce, the Kök Türks became dispersed and it is difficult to identify their modern descendants.
If they were indeed descended from the Eastern Scythians aka Saka (Suo) or related to the Kyrgyz, as the Zhoushu states (Zhoushu 50.908), the Ashina (royal Türkic dynasty, possibly related to the Turko-Jewish Khazar Khaganate, according to Peter B. Golden of Rutgers University) may have belonged to the R1a1 lineage.” - Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang, University of Toronto, Canada
Source: “A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples’
Authors: Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang from, the University of Toronto of Canada
“Kyrgyz are an admixed population between the East and the West. Different patterns have been observed in the patrilineal gene pool of the Kyrgyz. Historically, ancient Kyrgyz were considered to be the Yenisei Kyrgyz that may perhaps be concerned with the Tashtyk culture.
Extremely low Y-diversity and the presence of a high-frequency 68.9% Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a1-M17 (a diagnostic Indo-Iranian marker are striking features of Kyrgyz populations in central Asia. It is believed that this lineage is associated with Indo-Europeans who migrated to the Altai region during the Bronze Age and mixed with various Turkic groups.
Among the Asian R1a1a1b2-Z93 lineages, R1a1a1b2a2-Z2125 is quite common in Kyrgyzstan (68%) and Afghan Pashtuns (40%), and less frequent in other Afghan ethnic groups and some Caucasus and Iran populations (10%). Notably, the basal lineage R1a1a1b2-Z93* is commonly distributed in the South Siberian Altai region of Russia.
According to the published ancient DNA data, we found that, in Middle Bronze Age, Haplogroup R1a1a1b2a2a- Z2125 was mainly found in Sintashta culture population from Kamennyi Ambar 5 cemetery, western Siberia, in Fedorovo type of the Andronovo culture or Karasuk culture population from Minusinsk Basin, southern Siberia, and in Andronovo culture populations from Maitan, Ak-Moustafa, Aktogai, Kazakh Mys, Satan, Oy-Dzhaylau III, Karagash 2, Dali, and Zevakinskiy stone fence, Kazakhstan.” (Wen, Shao-qing; Du, Pan-xin; Sun, Chang; Cui, Wei; Xu, Yi-ran; Meng, Hai-liang; Shi, Mei-sen; Zhu, Bo-feng; Li, Hui (March 2022)
Source: "Dual origins of the Northwest Chinese Kyrgyz: the admixture of Bronze age Siberian and Medieval Niru'un Mongolian Y chromosomes", Nature
Authors: Wen, Shao-qing; Du, Pan-xin; Sun, Chang; Cui, Wei; Xu, Yi-ran; Meng, Hai-liang; Shi, Mei-sen; Zhu, Bo-feng; Li, Hui (March 2022)
“The modern-day descendants of the Yenisei Kyrgyz, the Kyrgyz people, have one of the highest frequencies of haplogroup R1a-Z93. This lineage believed to be associated with Indo-Iranians who migrated to the Altai region in the Bronze Age, and is carried by various Türkic groups. The Zhoushu [the book of the Zhou Dynasty] (Linghu Defen 2003, Chapter 50, p. 908) informs us that the Ashina, the royal clan of the Kök Türks, were related to the Kyrgyz.
If so, the Ashina may have belonged to the R1a1 lineage like the modern-day Tienshan Kyrgyz, who are characterised by the high frequency of R1a1 (over 65%). Haplogroup R1a1, more specifically, its sub- clade R1a1a1b2 defined by mutation Z93, was carried by the Indo-European pastoralists, who reached the Kazakh steppes, the Tarim Basin, the Altai Mountains region, the Yenisei River region, and western Mongolia from the Black Sea steppes during the Bronze Age (Semino et al. 2000, p. 1156, Lee, Joo-Yup (2018)
Source: Lee, Joo-Yup (2018). "Some remarks on the Turkicisation of the Mongols in post-Mongol Central Asia and the Kipchak Steppe ''. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 71 (2): 121–124. doi:10.1556/062.2018.71.2.1. ISSN 0001-6446. S2CID 133847698.
Kazakh DNA researcher Zhaxylyk Sabitov states: “Until the 9th century, the Kyrgyz lived along the Yenisei River in the Minusinsk Basin. In the 9th century, the Yenisei Kyrgyz migrated to the Altai and Irtysh regions.
“From 1326 to 1329, some Altai Kyrgyz moved to Semirechye and the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan.” He also published DNA sample data from the Sintashta culture, which he claims “is related to the Altai and modern Kyrgyz, while the Arban-1 samples from the Karasuk culture are ancestral to modern Kyrgyz. Genetic data from Arzhan complex (8th century BCE) also show parental genes of the Kyrgyz.”
It is known that the structure of Arzhan has similarities with the Sintashta-Andronovo kurgans (M.P. Gryaznov). It is known that Saka tribes lived in the territory of Kyrgyzstan, and later the Wusun tribe arrived from the east. The high percentage of R1a1 among the Kyrgyz appeared through three routes: from the Saka tribes, from the Wusun Sakas, and from the Dingling tribes. There is also a theory about the migration of part of the Yenisei Kyrgyz to the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan.” (Zhaxylyk Sabitov)
Source: “Historical-Genetic Approach in the Study of the Ethnogenesis and Material Culture of the Ancient Kyrgyz” - International Journal of Experimental Education
“The land of Modern Kyrgyzstan, populated at the turn of the eras by the Saka and Wusun tribes, was overrun by the Yenisei Kyrgyzes (Khakasses) in the 8th c. AD.
Since Kyrgyzstan is a natural mountain fortress of the Tian Shan mountains, it is an island similar to the Lithuanian Tatars, with high genetic inertia and limited influences. Essentially, all four are Scythians, the Saka Scythians, Wusun Scythians, Yenisei Kyrgyz Scythians, and the Lithuanian Tatar Scythians.”
Source: “The Lithuanian Tatars: DNA Ancestry Traced To The Eurasian Steppes”, Academy of DNA-Genealogy, Tsukuba, Japan, Igor Rozhanski
"Samples from the burials of the Andronovo, Tagar, and Tashtyk cultures were identified using Y-STR analysis, which allows for the comparison of these samples with each other and with samples from representatives of different populations, both ancient and modern.
The Andronovo haplotypes S10 and S16 have the following structure:
ANDRON S10, S16:
13-25-16-11-11-14-10-14-11-18-15-14-11-16-20-12-23
The greatest number of matches is observed with the Tian Shan Kyrgyz and the Southern Altaians. Complete matches of haplotypes in populations that are geographically close and share a common history are possible only in cases of genetic relationship; random matches are unlikely.
Thus, the Southern Altaians and the Tien Shan Kyrgyz are likely descendants of close relatives of the Yenisei Andronovites, most likely the descendants of the Altai Andronovites. It is well established by linguists and ethnographers that there is close linguistic and ethnic kinship between the Kyrgyz and the Southern Altaians (Baskakov, 1966: 15-16).
These peoples share the same names for their clan divisions (Mundus, Telos-Doolos, Kipchak, Naiman, Merkit, etc.). Kyrgyz legends refer to Altai as the ancestral home of their people. Several historians believe that the Kyrgyz and Southern Altaians once formed a single community and that the migration of the Kyrgyz from Altai to Tien Shan occurred relatively recently (Abramzon, 1959: 34; Abdumanapov, 2007: 95, 114).
Source: Volkov V.G., Kharkov V.N., Stepanov V.A. Andronovo and Tagar cultures in light of genetic data."
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